Pressure Sensor Controlled Valve Based Microcontroller In General Engineering Essay

Pressure Sensor Controlled Valve Based Microcontroller In General Engineering Essay A pressure sensor measures pressure, typically of gases or liquids. Pressure sensor can also be called as pressure transducers, pressure transmitters, pressure senders, pressure indicators and piezometers. Pressure sensors are used for control and monitoring in thousands of everyday applications. Pressure Sensor Controlled Valve based Microcontroller in General A pressure sensor controlled valve based microcontroller is a pressure sensing device that is capable of controlling a desired pressure up to the set point set by the user. Besides, the pressure sensing device also allows the user to monitor and control the entire process of the system by interfacing a Microcontroller with a PC Using RS232 and the PC Serial Port. Pressure sensor and valve are required to design pressure sensing device according to their task Nowadays pressure sensors can vary in design, performance, application suitability and cost. On the other hand, pressure sensors can be classified in term of pressure ranges they measure, temperature ranges of operation, and most importantly the type of pressure they measure. Valves are used to control conditions such as flow, pressure, temperature, and liquid level. The opening or closing of the valve is depend on the signals received from the controllers that compare a set point to a process variable where the value is obtain from the sensor that monitor the change of conditions. Besides, the opening and closing of the control valve is done by electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic system. A valve also can vary in design, pressure range and temperature range of the operation, application suitability and cost. Project Objective The main objective of this project is to design and construct a prototype of pressure sensor controlled valve based microcontroller. This prototype should have the following fundamental features: Able to control the pressure through the setpoint set by the user. Able to activate the alarm if the pressure is above a setpoint. Able to shutdown the whole process if the pressure is in critical pressure. Able to monitor the process of the control through PC. Upon successful implementation of these fundamental features, enhancements are added to improve the safety of this pressure sensor controlled valve based microcontroller. The first improvement is adding manual control function to make this control valve able to control by the user even the pressure sensor is fail to give a signal to the microcontroller. Besides, a backup battery is also added into the controller to provide power when there is absence of main power supply. The backup battery will power the circuit only in the event of failure. On the other hand, a temperature sensor will also be added into this pressure sensor controlled valve based microcontroller to maintain the optimum temperature of the gas. Project Overview The pressure sensor controlled valve based microcontroller is designed to control pressure either in gas or liquid medium in any suitable application. The pressure sensor will senses the pressure from the along the tube or pipe along the application. The bottom of the pressure sensor is connected with a T-Joint connector to the tube or pipe and the analog control signal from the pressure sensor will be connected to the analog port of microcontroller. The analog signal received by microcontroller will be analyzed by the microcontroller. The microcontroller will then control the control valve by with the signal received by the sensor. Besides, a temperature sensor (LM35) will also be added into the prototype to enhance the performance of the prototype. The temperature sensor will be mounted at the surface of the tube or pipe. The temperature sensor will sense the temperature of gas or liquids inside the tube or pipe and send a control signal to microcontroller. The analog control signal from the temperature sensor will be connected to the analog port of microcontroller. The microcontroller then will control the control valve according to the temperature received by sensor. Recently, serial port of computer slowly phase out from the market and to be replaced with USB. Nowadays, most developer will favor USB to serial converter to obtain virtual serial port. So, in order to for general and convenient use, a USB to UART converter (UC00A) which offers USB plug and play, direct interface with microcontroller will also be added to the prototype to create a monitoring system through PC. The Transmit Signal (TX) from UC00A will be connect to the microcontroller receiver pin (RX/RC7) . While the Receive Signal (RX) from UC00A will be connect to the microcontroller transmitter pin (TX/RC6) . Then, a GUI( Global User Interface) will be develop using Microsoft Visual Basic for user to monitor the process operation of the prototype. On the other hand, a backup battery of 24Vdc will also be connected parallel with the main power supply. This is to provide the prototype with a backup power supply when there is no power provided from main power supply .This is to prevent and protect the prototype from trip of circuit and critical shut down of the prototype that might cause damage to the hardware of the prototype. Besides, a LCD display (216 characters) is used to display the pressure and temperature measured from the sensors and indicates the condition or status of the control valve and the air compressor which useful for calibration, monitoring, debugging and testing. A buzzer is embedded in the prototype is used as an alarm when the pressure or temperature is above the setpoint set by the user. Project Scope and Methodology This project consisted both of the hardware and software implementation. According to the schedule, construction of the final prototype was ensured to achieve the projects objective. At the same time, software also designed to meet all the fundamental requirements. When the prototype that met the primary objectives was successfully constructed, the remaining projects duration was spent on enhancements of the prototype to make it more durable and reliable. In part one, projects objectives identification and planning had been done. After that, research on some the theoretical background of the project such as types of pressure sensor, temperature sensor, type and size of fittings and tube, types of control valve and the basic electric component for the controller that needed for this project. Electronic components were carefully selected to construct the prototype based of its functionality, reliability and cost. When hardware selection was finalized and decided, a layout for printed circuit board (PCB) was designed and fabricated. After that, a simple program was written to test, calibrate and debug the prototype to make it worked as described in the primary objective. In part two, further enhancements to the prototype were planned and implemented. The mechanical drawing of the prototype had been designed. The mechanical part of the hardware such as pressure sensor, tubing, fitting, control valve is joint up together and the wiring is connected to the into the main board(Controller) of the prototype. Besides, monitoring system of the operation is also embedded to the prototype to ease the user to monitor the operation using a PC in a control room. After all features, were completed, testing was undertaking to ensure the reliability of the whole system. Troubleshooting and debugging phase on software and hardware were necessary to make all the system become more reliable and safe. Structure of the Report This report is divided into six chapters. At the Chapter 1, Introduction to the project which includes Pressure Sensor Controlled Valve Based Microcontroller in general, Project objective, Project overview, Project scope and Methodology had been discussed. In Chapter 2, some theoretical background for this project will be explained and described in details. While in Chapter 3, how hardware designed of this project as well as their functions will be elaborated. Besides, Methodology used for design the hardware also will be discussed in this chapter. Chapter 4 described the Methodology for the software development of this project. Flow chart for the program will be showed and explained. Besides, equipment and tools used to design complete software also will be discussed in this chapter. In Chapter 5, results and discussion will be shown to explain how the pressure sensor control valves based microcontroller performs its operation. On the other hands, the problems encountered while designing the prototype either in hardware or software and how these problems solved will be also discussed in this chapter. Chapter 6 will be the summary and conclusion of the report whether all the fundamental requirements and objectives achieved for Final Year Project. Then, there will be a short recommendation or suggestion to further improve this project so that it can be used in various types of industry environment. Chapter 2: Theoretical Background 2.1 Introduction to Pressure Sensor A pressure sensor is one that will measure the pressure either gasses or liquids. Pressure is an expression of the force required to stop a fluid or gas from expanding, and it can be express as the equation below. [1] P=F/A Where: P  is the pressure, F  is the  normal force, A  is the area. Pressure Units can be expressed as the table below: Table 1: Pressure Unit 2.1.1 Types of Pressure Measurement Basically, pressures sensor can be classified in term of pressure ranges, temperature ranges and most importantly the pressure type. Pressure sensor can be classified in 5 types of pressure measurement which are : Absolute pressure sensor -Whereby the sensor measure the pressure relative to perfect vacuum pressure (0 Psi or no pressure) 2) Gauge pressure sensor -Whereby the sensor measure the pressure relative to given atmospheric pressure. For example when a tire pressure gauge read 0 Psi meaning to say there is 14.7 Psi (atmospheric pressure) in the tire. 3) Vacuum pressure sensor -The sensor is used to measure pressure less than the atmospheric pressure. 4) Differential pressure sensor -The sensor measures the difference between two or more pressures introduced as inputs to the sensing unit. 5) Sealed pressure sensor Whereby the sensor is used to measure the pressure relative to sea level pressure. 2.1.2 Types of Control Signal from Pressure sensor There are two types of Control signal from pressures sensor which are current output and voltage output signal. Current output normally ranged from 4-20ma while the voltage output normally ranged from 1-5Vdc or 1-6Vdc (The voltage output range mostly is depend by the manufacturer or the type of application). The current output and voltage output always start from 4ma and 1Vdc is to check whether the wiring of the pressure sensor is done correctly and to check whether there is faulty at the pressure sensor. For example, if the pressure sensor output a current below 4ma or 1Vdc, we have to check at the pressure sensor because they might be faulty at the pressure sensor. The current output control signal is widely used in many kind of industry compared to voltage output control signal. This is because there is no voltage drop when current output control signal travel a very long distance compare to voltage output control signal. When travelling at a very long distance, voltage output control signal will have disadvantage due to the resistance of the long wire will cause a voltage drop and might give an inaccurate result to the controller. So, the current output control signal tends to give a more accurate result compare to voltage output control signal. Due to limitation at PIC microcontroller which only has Analog-to-Digital Converter, so a voltage output control signal will be more suitable for the project. Types of Application of Pressure sensor A pressure sensor can be widely used in many types of application.For example: [2] 1) Pressure Sensing -The pressure is measure directly using pressure sensors. This is very useful in oil and gas industry, cars, aircraft, and other machinery that has a pressure functionality implemented. 2) Leak Testing -A pressure sensor can be used to sense the decay of pressure due to a system leak. This is done by either comparison to a known leak using differential pressure, or by means of utilizing the pressure sensor to measure pressure change over time. 3) Level Sensing A pressure sensor can also be used to calculate the level of a fluid. This technique is commonly employed to measure the level of contents in a tank (such as in a water tower). For most practical purposes, fluid level is directly proportional to pressure. In the case of fresh water where the contents are under atmospheric pressure, 1psi = 27.7 inH20 / 1Pa = 9.81 mmH20. The basic equation for such a measurement is P  =  p  *  g  *  h Where P = Pressure, p = Density of the Fluid, g = Standard Gravity, h = Height of fluid column above pressure sensor Introduction to Valve A valve is device that is used to regulate the flow of a fluid or gasses by opening and closing or partially obstructing various passageways. A valve can be operating either in manual operation or automatic operation driven by change in pressure, temperature or flow. For manual operation, the opening and closing of the valve is control by using hand wheel, lever or pedal using human force. Meanwhile for the automatic operation, the opening and closing of the valve is control using an actuator .An actuator will stroke the valve depending on its input and set-up, allowing the valve to be positioned accurately, and allowing control over a variety of requirements. Nowadays, Actuators are widely used for the purposes of automatic control such as in washing machine cycles, remote control such as the use of a centralised  control room, or because manual control is too difficult such as when the valve is very large. [3] 2.2.1 Types of Actuator in the Valve Valve can be classified on how they are actuated. Among them are: [3] Hydraulic Pneumatic Manual Solenoid Motor For a hydraulic system actuator valve is normally used to control a high pressure while Pneumatic system actuator valve is normally used to control a medium pressure in application. Meanwhile low pressure, solenoid or motorized system actuator valve can be used. 2.2.2 Application of Valve Valve can vary widely in form and application. The size of the valve is typically range from 0.1mm to 60cm. Some special valve can have a diameter exceeding 5 metres. The cost for a valve is depending on types of the design, material build, range of temperature and pressure and manufacturer. When a designer, engineer, or user decides to use a valve for an application, he/she should ensure the rated maximum temperature and pressure are never exceeded and that the wetted materials are compatible with the fluid the valve interior is exposed to. [3] The industries in which the majority of valves are used are oil and gas, power generation, water reticulation, sewerage and chemical manufacturing. [3] 2.3 Introduction to Tubing Tubing is pipe or a hollow cylinder for the transmission of fluid (liquid or gas). The term of pipe and tubing can be interchangeable although there are minor distinctions exist- basically, tubing imply tighter engineering requirements than pipe. Both pipe and tubing can be varies in different rigidity and permanence. For examples, a hose is normally portable and flexible. Besides, tubing and pipe can be specified by standard pipe size designation. Types of tubing are specified by the actual inside diameter, outside diameter and the wall thickness. [4] 2.3.1 Types of Tubing Basically, there are few types of tubing can be used in industry. Among them are: Copper Tubing Stainless Steel or Aluminium Tubing Plastic Tubing For copper tubing, there are two basic types of copper tubing, soft copper and rigid copper. Copper tubing can be joined using flare connection, compression connection, or sweat (solder). Soft copper tubing can be bent easily to travel around obstacles in the path of the tubing while a rigid copper cannot be bent and must use  elbow fittings  to go around corners or around obstacles. Soft copper is the most popular choice for refrigerant lines in  split-system  air conditioners and heat pumps while rigid copper is most popular choice for water line. [5] For Aluminium Tubing, it is sometimes used in industry because it is resistance to corrosion and solvents, and for its ductility. Besides, aluminium cannot create sparks when there is a transmission of flammable solvent and the weight for aluminium is lighter compare to steel and iron which make it suitable to use in many types of industry. [5] Aluminium tubing can be joined using flare connection, compression connection, or sweat (solder). Aluminium tubing can be used for heat transfer tubing such as in refrigerant systems. [6] For Plastic Tubing, there are few types of plastic tubing which are PVC(polyvinyl chloride) and CPVC, Polyethylene, Rigid Polypropylene, ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) and Nylon tubing. The most popular for plastic tubing is PVC. It is rigid, and uses thread or glue connections. Besides, it is available in several of pressure range. [5] Plastic tubing is widely used for its light weight, chemical resistance, non-corrosive properties, and ease of making connections. [6] 2.3.2 Types of Tube Fittings There are many types of connection methods for tubing application in industry. The four most common types of tube fttings connections are: Compression Tube Fittings Flare Fittings Bite-Type Tube Fittings Mechanical Grip-Type Tube Fittings The Compression Tube Fitting was the first tube fitting to be introduced, which consist of three components: nut, body and gasket ring or ferrule. The disadvantages of compression tube fittings was it can withstand only minimal pressure and the remake is very difficult due to the contrustion of the sealing ring. [7] CompressionTube Fitting The Flare Fitting was the another variation in tube fittings designs. The fittings is made up from a nut, sleeve and body with a flare or coned end. During installation of a tubing, a special flaring tools are usually required .The disadvantages of flare fittings is that flaring of the tubing may cause stress riser at the base of the flare or cause the axial cracks on thin tubing. [7] Flare Fitting For Bite-Type Tube Fitting , it is used to accommodate higher pressure application over the compression tube fitting design. The fittings is typically made up with a nut, body and ferrule(s) having a sharp leading edge, which give bites into the skin of the tubing to achieve griping and holding ability. There are two types of design for bite-type tube fittings which are the single ferrule and twin ferrule design. In single ferrule bite, the nose of the ferrule performs two functions. The first function is to bite into the tube to hold it and second function is to provide a sealing element for the coupling body.In twin ferrule bite, the back ferrule is used to bite and provide gripping into tube and the front ferrule is used for sealing element for the coupling body. [7] Single-Ferrule Bite-Type Two-Ferrule Bite Type Meanwhile for Mechanical Grip-Type Tube Fittings are typically two-ferrule in design. The front ferrule is used to seals by coining the surface of the tubing and coupling body. While the back ferrule is used holding action. The back ferrule grip the tube for a distance just out-board from tube holding point of the ferrule nose to enhance vibration resistance. The main advantanges of this design compare to the bite-type fittings is that break and remake of the fitting after installation can be more successfully accomplished without damage to either the fitting components or the tubing. [7] Mechanical- Grip Type 2.4 Introduction to Pipe Thread Basically ,there are two types of standard for pipe thread which are : British Standard Pipe- BSP American National Pipe-NPT/NPS Both of British Standard pipe and American National Pipe is designated by trade size rather than actual diameter. Under BSP, there are two basic types of BSP threads which are the BSPT (British Standard Pipe Taper) which is also know as R threads and BSPP (British Standard Pipe Parallel) which is also known as G threads. Both of the BSPT and BSPP have the same thread angle, shapre and pitch ( threads per inch). The only difference for BSPT and BSPP is BSPT threads are tapered and BSPP threads are straight ( parallel). BSP thread have a 55o include angle and have rounded peaks and valleys. On the other hands, for NPT, there are also two basic types of national pipe threads which are NPT ( National Pipe Taper) abd NPS ( National Pipe Straight) . Both NPT and NPS have the same thread angle, shape, and pitch (threads per inch).   However, NPT threads are tapered and NPS threads are straight (parallel).   Both threads have a 60 ° included angle and have flat peaks and valley 2.4.1 NPT vs BSP Pipe NPT thread are widely used in United State but, BSP thread are more widely used in many other countries.The actual specified outside diameters of American National Pipe is slightly different from British Standard Pipe,.NPT/NPS and BSP thread are not compatible with each another. This is due to the differences in their thread forms and pitch . NPT/NPS threads have a 60 ° included angle and have flattened peaks and valleys while a BSP threads have a 55 ° included angle and have rounded peaks and valleys As conclusion, never ever try to mate a BSP fittings with an NPT or NPS fittings if the pressure holding capability is at all critical. CHAPTER 3 HARDWARE AND SETUP DESIGN In this chapter, the hardware components used to setup the hardware would be elaborated and discussed. Each components features and its operation were studied before proceed to the hardware design. These components were tested on breadboard individually with simple program. The main purpose of this is wanted to determine components and algorithms used are work and function properly. Based on these algorithms, a complete program could be designed to make all the components work in the correct manners. The details about software methodology will be explained at next chapter. After all the hardware components passed the testing, a proper design of Printed Circuit Layout (PCB) was needed. A good and neat design of the PCB would ensure all the components work stability and properly to achieve the project primary objectives. During this stage, Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) theory had studied to prevent undesired manners such as noise or crosstalk occurred in the PCB board. Besides , the design drawing of hardware prototype is also had been studied before assembling the hardware prototype. At the last stage, the tubing, fittings, valve, pressures sensor and pressure gauge is assemble carefully in order to prevent gasses leakage from prototype. 3.1 Microcontroller Unit (MCU) A microcontroller is a computer system that runs on a single integrated circuit. It usually consists of Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory unit and Input/Output (I/O) modules. Apart from these, a MCU also contains timers, counters and interrupt scheduling circuitry. Microcontrollers are widely applied in the robotics and embedded system controllers. Different microcontroller models may offer extra peripherals and registers for some applications (eg. UART, SPI, I2C and etc.). They usually run in a fixed oscillating frequency. There are advanced microcontrollers which are 32-bits microcontroller developed nowadays. But, 8-bit microcontrollers are usually sufficient to design a small embedded controller. In this project, Microchip microcontroller had been chosen due to its extra features. For instance, PIC had built-in ADC module to ease the analog to digital signal converting and Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART) module to communicate with PC. 3.2 Microchip PIC Microcontroller PIC stand for Peripheral Interface Controller. Until now, Microchip had developed and manufactured multiple families of PIC microcontroller in different packages. They are several families in a certain category such as PIC10, PIC12, PIC16, and PIC18 in 8-bit PIC microcontrollers, PIC24F, PIC24H, dsPIC30 and dsPIC33 in 16-bit PIC microcontrollers and PIC32 in 32-bit PIC microcontroller. The PIC microcontroller that is used in this project is PIC16F877A. One of the reason this PIC microcontroller was choosen because it is in 40-pin DIP package. It was also chosen because it is powerful and yet easy to program CMOS FLASH with only 25 single word instructions based 8-bit microcontroller. With the 20MHz operating frequency, the PIC only need only 200 nanoseconds to execute and instruction.

Good And A Bad Oil And Petrol Service Economics Essay

Good And A Bad Oil And Petrol Service Economics Essay With reference to the case study, distinguish clearly between a good and a bad service. Answer A good service is customer oriented. In the case study companies such as Tesco, that offer blended petrol offer a good service. Blended petrol has a uniform price, is a renewable energy source, and reduces greenhouse gas emissions. On the other hand, companies offering petrol offer a bad service since the prices of fuel vary between regions and increases pollution. Question 2. With reference to the production of either oil or bio-ethanol, explain the concepts of scarcity and opportunity cost. Answer The production of bio-ethanol requires resources such as corn, wheat, and maize. However, these resources are scarce, i.e. there are not enough of the resources to feed the US population and to produce bio-ethanol. Thus, the production or the non-production of bio-ethanol raises the issue of opportunity cost. The opportunity cost of production is the lack of corn, maize, and wheat to feed the population. The opportunity cost of non-production includes the lack of a clean atmosphere due to the consumption of oil, which is a pollutant. Question 3. Explain why the price of petrol is generally higher in rural areas, such as North West Scotland, than in urban areas. Answer There is a higher demand for petrol in rural areas compared to the urban areas. The rural area people travel longer by car and are more reliant on the car compared to the urban populations. Additionally, the rural population is not dependent on the public means of transport as is the case in the urban areas. These factors increase the demand for petrol and thus its prices. An increase in demand drives up prices. Question 4. Explain why the demand for petrol is price inelastic, whilst the cross-elasticity of demand for a brand of petrol is high. Answer Despite the price of petrol, people will use their cars. Thus, even doubling the price of petrol does not significantly affect the demand for petrol (Pindyck and Rubinfeld, 2008). This makes the demand for petrol price inelastic. Additionally, reducing the consumption of petrol requires significant changes such as driving less, purchasing a more fuel-efficient car, and using the public means of transport. However, the cross-elasticity of demand for a brand of petrol is high since the availability of petrol brands that are priced lower than petrol results to a shift in demand from petrol to the cheaper substitute. For instance, a reduction in the price of diesel would lead to a shift to diesel cars. Question 5. a] Draw a fully labeled diagram to show the impact on the demand for petrol of an increase in the price of diesel fuel. b] Clearly explain the impact on the demand for petrol of an increase in the price of diesel fuel. Answer The increase in price of diesel from P1 to P2 will result to an increase in the quantity demanded of petrol from Q1 to Q2. The increase in the price leads to a rise in the quantity demanded of the substitute good. Petrol and diesel are close substitutes and an increase in the price of diesel will lead to an increase in the quantity demanded of petrol. The price and quantity demanded of substitute goods have a direct relationship. Question 6 a] Draw a fully labeled diagram to show the impact on the demand for diesel powered cars of an increase in the price of diesel fuel. b] Clearly explain the impact on the demand for diesel powered cars of an increase in the price of diesel fuel. Answer Diesel and diesel powered cars are complimentary goods. For complimentary products, if the price of one commodity is increased, it results to the consumers demanding less of the complimentary good. Thus, an increase in the price of diesel fuel from P1 to P2 will result in a decline in the demand for diesel-powered cars from Q1 to Q2. The price and quantity demanded of complimentary goods are inversely correlated. Question 7 a] Do you consider petrol to be a normal good or an inferior good? Answer Normal good b] Explain your answer to question 7a]. Answer The quantity demanded for normal goods increase with an increase in income (Mankiw, 2008). The quantity demanded for petrol is likely to increase once income increases and vise versa. An increase in income will lead to more people purchasing automobiles. This will lead to a higher demand for petrol. The income elasticity of demand for petrol is positive. Otherwise, if the quantity demanded for petrol declines with an increase in income, petrol would be an inferior good. Question 8 a] Explain how an oil company might increase the supply of oil in the short-run. Answer The supply of oil is inelastic in the short-run because of the significant costs of production. Once an oil field has been constructed, the costs of running the field remain significantly the same irrespective of the capacity of operation. However, if the prices of oil increase in the short-run, the oil companies may increase the supply of oil since the marginal costs of production become insignificant. b] Explain the impact on short-run costs of increasing supply in the short-run. Answer An increase in the supply of oil in the short-run leads to an increase in the marginal costs of production. The quantity of oil supplied in the short-run depends on the ability of the price increase to cover the marginal costs. Question 9 Explain the profit maximizing output of a firm in the oil supply industry. The firm maximizes its profit at the point where MC=MR. This implies that the firm will continue to increase its production of oil until the point where no more profits can be generated (Mankiw, 2008). Question 10 a] Which market structure do you believe best describes petrol retailing in the UK. Answer Non-collusive oligopoly b] Explain your answer to question 10a]. Answer A small number of oil retailers characterize the market. The market is a high-volume, low profit margin implying that a variation in price by one firm affects the profitability of the other firms. c] Identify one strategy that a petrol-retailing firm might choose when competing with other petrol retailing firms. Answer A reduction in prices d] Explain the advantages and disadvantages of that strategy. A small discount on the price that is offered by the other firms in the oligopolistic market will lead to an increase in the sales of the firm offering the discount. The disadvantage of the strategy is that the other firms in the market are likely to follow suit and reduce their prices. This leads to Bertrand-Nash equilibrium where the long-run outcome is that the entire market will suffer a reduction in prices (Krugman and Wells, 2004). The firms can also compete on quantities. If a firm increases its quota of production, it will able to capture a larger market than the competing firms. However, it will lead to Cournot-Nash equilibrium when other firms adopt the same strategy (Krugman and Wells, 2004). An increase in prices reduces the prices in the market and firms suffer a reduction of prices. The use of petrol as a fuel for cars generates market failure in the form of externalities. Question 11a] Explain why ignoring the externalities can result in the over-consumption of petrol. Answer The consumption of petrol produces externalities such as pollution and traffic congestion. If these externalities are not included in the prices of petrol, the price of petrol will not reflect the total cost of production. Thus, in a competitive market, the existence of un-priced externalities in the market will result in under pricing of oil and its subsequent overconsumption. b] Explain how ONE policy instrument can reduce this market failure. Market-based instruments are among the policy measures used for reducing market failures. The strategy employs pricing and other economic variables to offer incentives for the reduction of negative externalities. The method seeks to eliminate market failure caused by negative externalities by incorporating external costs of consumption and production. This is done through various means such as taxation, charges on products, establishing property rights, and establishing alternative markets for the consumption of environmental services.

Dreams in Buffy the Vampire Slayer Essay -- Buffy the Vampire Slayer

Dreams in Buffy the Vampire Slayer      Ã‚   The battle between Good and Evil. Nothing could be more timeless or universal. And each week, when presented as a contest between a teenage vampire slayer named Buffy and legions of vampires, demons, and assorted destructive forces on the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer, millions of modern American television viewers watch that conflict as represented in late-nineties popular culture. As any frequent TV viewer knows, Good wins, vanquishing Evil with some ratings-garnering kicks and punches, and the episode concludes, at least until next week. Right? Not quite. Although Buffy consistently protects the world from destruction, her supremacy as a force of good remains challenged and incomplete. In part, this is a television necessity; forces of evil must always remain to be battled in next week's episode. But within the text of the series itself, the character of Buffy's boyfriend Angel -- a two-hundred odd year old vampire with a soul -- further complicates this blur ring of the lines between good and evil. Angel, whose very nature embodies a coexistence of and struggle between good and evil, functions as a site within which the war between Good and Evil take place on a microcosmic level. In the episode "Amends," Angel's dreams and visions of his past destructive acts drive him to a suicide attempt. The episode's dual reading of the evil force responsible for Angel's dreams as an external demonic force and as an element of Angel's own psyche ultimately suggests the appropriate response to evil is not more destruction but rather comprehension of and vigilance against the complex and competing forces present within individuals.    On its most literal level, the episode "Am... ...itive constructive power even in the face of his darker nature. For Buffy and Angel, dreams are not solutions. Rather, dreams serve as insights into their situation, themselves, and their emotional connection. Though the revelations and lessons of self and of loved ones come from dreams, the solution and "fighting" against evil and weakness comes from the characters working together. Though it presents surprisingly complex view for a television series, Buffy the Vampire Slayer's exploration of the interactive forces of good and evil on two narrative levels ensures that while episodes like "Amends" entertain, they also touch at deeper issues of concern to audiences across time and place. Good, evil, and dream visions -- Tuesdays on the WB.    Works Cited Whedon, Joss, creator. "Amends." Buffy the Vampire Slayer. The WB Network. 15 December 1998.      

Market Size :: essays research papers

Market size and Growth The perspective size of the market is based on the number of schools that will potentially allow our organization to teach their students. There are only 13 states in which financial education is required or offered which leaves us with a large potential to spread financial education to 37 other states as well as better cater to the school systems who already have a finance program. This is our key to market growth and ultimately market potential. Since the fall 2001 68.5 million people were enrolled in school the potential for growth is rather larger. Since our company focuses primarily on teens and finance it is our specialty, our primary and only target market, where as for other companies it is a secondary market. Diversity in the United State There continue to be problems on the job caused by peoples' racial and cultural misunderstanding of their differences. It is possible to hire people to respect those of other cultures and races. As I enter into this subject of diversity I would like to give a clear definition t what diversity is? According to an article from the University of Maryland Diversity Database~" Moving Towards Community" entitled Diversity in the workplace Work Teams and Diversity. It is define as the ways people in organizations differ in many ways race, gender, ethnic group, age, personality, cognitive style, tenure, organizational function, and more. There is also the fact that diversity not only involves how people think of others and how this affects their interaction but how they conceive of themselves. What are the problems that relate to diversity in the American workplace? Race is one of the problems in the American workplace, for some time whites male has dominated the workforce for generations, but things has changed since so many different nationalities of other ethnic groups are now living in American that this work domination of white males can longer exist in its present controlling state. According to Angeles Arrien "Cultural diversity is a business reality today. The ability to build bridges between people from different countries, with different ethnic backgrounds, is as important as any other business function. Working in a culturally and ethnically diverse organization does not mean elimination differences in style and approach, but celebrating those differences and tapping into the much strength diversity brings to and organization. Angeles Arrien goes on to say that The Bureau of Vocational Guidance at Harvard, found that at least two-thirds of the people that lose their jobs do not do so because they cannot do the work, but because of their inability to deal effectively with people.

Unbridled Ambition in Shakespeares Macbeth Essay -- Macbeth essays

Unbridled Ambition in Macbeth      Ã‚  Ã‚   Where is there a page in William Shakespeare's tragic play Macbeth which does not present the selfish virtue of personal ambition. This paper addresses the problem of ambition in the drama.    In "Memoranda: Remarks on the Character of Lady Macbeth," Sarah Siddons mentions the ambition of Lady Macbeth and its effect:    [Re "I have given suck" (1.7.54ff.)] Even here, horrific as she is, she shews herself made by ambition, but not by nature, a perfectly savage creature. The very use of such a tender allusion in the midst of her dreadful language, persuades one unequivocally that she has really felt the maternal yearnings of a mother towards her babe, and that she considered this action the most enormous that ever required the strength of human nerves for its perpetration. Her language to Macbeth is the most potently eloquent that guilt could use.   (56)    Clark and Wright in their Introduction to The Complete Works of William Shakespeare interpret the main theme of the play as intertwining with evil and ambition:    While in Hamlet and others of Shakespeare's plays we feel that Shakespeare refined upon and brooded over his thoughts, Macbeth seems as if struck out at a heat and imagined from first to last with rapidity and power, and a subtlety of workmanship which has become instructive. The theme of the drama is the gradual ruin through yielding to evil within and evil without, of a man, who, though from the first tainted by base and ambitious thoughts, yet possessed elements in his nature of possible honor and loyalty. (792)    In "Macbeth as the Imitation of an Action" Francis Fergusson states the place of Macbeth's ambition in the action of the play: .. ...iion of Critical Essays. Alfred Harbage, ed. Englewwod Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964.    Johnson, Samuel. The Plays of Shakespeare. N.p.: n.p.. 1765. Rpt in Shakespearean Tragedy. Bratchell, D. F. New York, NY: Routledge, 1990.    Kemble, Fanny. "Lady Macbeth." Macmillan's Magazine, 17 (February 1868), p. 354-61. Rpt. in Women Reading Shakespeare 1660-1900. Ann Thompson and Sasha Roberts, eds. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1997.    Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy of Macbeth. http://chemicool.com/Shakespeare/macbeth/full.html, no lin.    Siddons, Sarah. "Memoranda: Remarks on the Character of Lady Macbeth." The Life of Mrs. Siddons. Thomas Campbell. London: Effingham Wilson, 1834. Rpt. in Women Reading Shakespeare 1660-1900. Ann Thompson and Sasha Roberts, eds. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1997.    Unbridled Ambition in Shakespeare's Macbeth Essay -- Macbeth essays Unbridled Ambition in Macbeth      Ã‚  Ã‚   Where is there a page in William Shakespeare's tragic play Macbeth which does not present the selfish virtue of personal ambition. This paper addresses the problem of ambition in the drama.    In "Memoranda: Remarks on the Character of Lady Macbeth," Sarah Siddons mentions the ambition of Lady Macbeth and its effect:    [Re "I have given suck" (1.7.54ff.)] Even here, horrific as she is, she shews herself made by ambition, but not by nature, a perfectly savage creature. The very use of such a tender allusion in the midst of her dreadful language, persuades one unequivocally that she has really felt the maternal yearnings of a mother towards her babe, and that she considered this action the most enormous that ever required the strength of human nerves for its perpetration. Her language to Macbeth is the most potently eloquent that guilt could use.   (56)    Clark and Wright in their Introduction to The Complete Works of William Shakespeare interpret the main theme of the play as intertwining with evil and ambition:    While in Hamlet and others of Shakespeare's plays we feel that Shakespeare refined upon and brooded over his thoughts, Macbeth seems as if struck out at a heat and imagined from first to last with rapidity and power, and a subtlety of workmanship which has become instructive. The theme of the drama is the gradual ruin through yielding to evil within and evil without, of a man, who, though from the first tainted by base and ambitious thoughts, yet possessed elements in his nature of possible honor and loyalty. (792)    In "Macbeth as the Imitation of an Action" Francis Fergusson states the place of Macbeth's ambition in the action of the play: .. ...iion of Critical Essays. Alfred Harbage, ed. Englewwod Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964.    Johnson, Samuel. The Plays of Shakespeare. N.p.: n.p.. 1765. Rpt in Shakespearean Tragedy. Bratchell, D. F. New York, NY: Routledge, 1990.    Kemble, Fanny. "Lady Macbeth." Macmillan's Magazine, 17 (February 1868), p. 354-61. Rpt. in Women Reading Shakespeare 1660-1900. Ann Thompson and Sasha Roberts, eds. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1997.    Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy of Macbeth. http://chemicool.com/Shakespeare/macbeth/full.html, no lin.    Siddons, Sarah. "Memoranda: Remarks on the Character of Lady Macbeth." The Life of Mrs. Siddons. Thomas Campbell. London: Effingham Wilson, 1834. Rpt. in Women Reading Shakespeare 1660-1900. Ann Thompson and Sasha Roberts, eds. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1997.   

How Japan is Contributing to Globalization Essay

Globalization is one of the most important aspects of modern society affecting all spheres of life. Globalization involves public life, politics, economy, culture and social development. Globalization and the initiation of new technologies have significantly changed the way business, government and society are organized. Japan’s presence has loomed large in the Asia-Pacific region after World War II. Population density and geographic isolation are the two crucial factors that cannot be overstated when discussing Japan. Most of Japan’s land area is mountainous; and therefore, the residential area represents only 3%, and the industrial area is only 1. 4 %. However, Japan still generates an astounding 14% of the world’s GNP (Harukiyo, Hook, 2001). One of the key driving forces behind these changes is a new business model. Japan has made a great contribution to globalization process being a political and economic leader in the Asia-Pacific region. To be successful in global competition, firms become a triad power, establishing strong competitive position in all three parts. Ohmae (1985) views the world market as being composed of three major parts: the USA, Japan, and Europe. Ohmae (1995) also argues that the key to global success is the deliberate â€Å"insideration† of functional strengths of Japan economic system. He considers â€Å"equidistance† the critical requirement of a global strategy: seeing globally, thinking globally, and acting globally. In this process, Japan plays a core role as an economic and political leader controlling the new emerging order. Ohmae argued that successful global companies had to be equally strong in Japan, Western Europe, and the United States. These three regions, which Ohmae collectively called the Triad, represented the dominant economic centers of the world. Today, fully 75 % of world income as measured by GNP is located in the Triad. Ohmae has revised his view of the world; in the expanded Triad, the Japanese leg encompasses the entire Pacific region; the American leg includes Canada and Mexico; and the boundary in Europe is moving eastward. Acer Inc. provides a perfect illustration of a company with a well-balanced revenue stream; one-third of the company’s sales of computers and related equipment are in Asia, one-third in North America, and another 20 % are in Europe. Japan is responsive to local market conditions. The strategic imperative means the efficient global use of good marketing ideas rather than standardization, and an organization structure which encourages transfer of information from Japan to other countries. Global operations are tailored to maximize efficiency in concept development and effectiveness in local market delivery (Befu, Guichard-Anguis, 2001). Japanese multinational corporations which treat individual country markets separately are likely to disappear and be replaced by global corporations which sell standardized products the same way everywhere in the world. A major source of competitive advantage has become the ability to produce high-quality products at lowest cost, since global consumers will sacrifice their idiosyncratic preferences for the high-quality but low-priced products Globalization and the initiation of new technologies have significantly changed the way business, government and society are organized. One of the key driving forces behind these changes is a new business model. Host government regulations/incentives, as well as other environmental forces, can drive globalization. Similarity of tariff barriers, product standards, marketing regulations, and incentives for foreign direct investment can serve as stimuli for globalization.. Japan places more emphasis on market growth and penetration and in these aspects they were definite leaders. Japan has the benefit of a large domestic market but it appears that they also benefit from their emphasis on improvement in product quality and productivity. According to Yang (1995): â€Å"In Japanese business interactions, voice came as the counterpart of trust. Such participation not only provided information exchange but also moderated the coercive power inherent in the hierarchical command structure† (69). The competitiveness in the globalizing world is based on some of the nation’s sectors, where the companies experienced conditions in their home market that induced them to develop the â€Å"right† competencies to compete internationally. Many economists underline the great influence of Japanese policies on the World Trade Organization, â€Å"governmental subsidization of foreign direct investment, and the integration of Japanese production facilities in East Asia† (Maclachlan, 2004). Technological advances are also considered major drivers of globalization. Japanese technological innovations and leadership in IT industry influence global business and science. Japan plays a crucial role in globalization of automotive and IT industries. Communication and transportation technology makes integrated global operations feasible and desirable. Industries with high technology intensity are particularly conducive to standardized marketing approaches (Yang, 1995). Among market factors which can drive globalization are: emergence of global customers, homogenization of consumer needs and wants, existence of global marketing channels, and transferability of marketing practices. Political leadership allows Japan influence foreign relations and political situation. Following Harukiyo and Hook (2001): â€Å"The period of building another modern Japan: the history of post-war Japan colored by high-speed economic development as well by the shrunken role of Japan in world politics. This feature of post-war Japan can be summarized as the economic giant, political pigmy† (19). From the point of view of some scholars in economic-politics, globalization is the result of the capitalism dominance. Yip (1995) reinforces this idea saying that it is a new capitalism cycle where production has become transnational. To other authors, globalization is related to the increasing obsolescence of the nation-state system (Ohmae, 1995). Ohmae (1995) proposes that the more natural model is the â€Å"region-state†, an economic area defined independently of the national borders. To survive and prosper in the global marketplace, Japanese businesses have responded to the industry imperatives. Japan’s contribution to globalization can be explained as: global market participation; product standardization; concentration of value-adding activities; uniform marketing; and integrative competitive moves. Also, Japan’s global strategy has matched the globalization potential as defined by the cost, market, government, and competitive environments. The strategic imperative of Japan is to concentrate value-added activities to exploit factor cost differentials and extend competitive advantages by coordinating interdependencies among markets. Hence, success demands achieving integration of the firm’s competitive position across markets. Japan has a great influence on cultural and social life of global society. Film industry and animated films influence tastes and preferences of millions of people around the globe. Feature-length animated films and manga (an illustrated publications in comic book format) become a part of the global culture. Japanese food consumption patterns penetrated many Europeans countries and America. Traditional food is influence4d by sophisticated cuisine highly customized to the change of seasons. Modern Japanese cuisine includes many seafood dishes with fresh ingredients (sushi), natto and soy sauce. Over the last 50 years, Japanese food culture becomes global and has been adopted by other cultures. Befu and Guichard-Anguis (2001) call this phenomenon cultural diffusion underlining the role and impact of Japanese cultural norms on the ‘outside’ world. For instance, the popularity and â€Å"the success of contemporary Japanese fine art photography in American art museums and galleries† (131) underline the importance and influence on Japanese culture on global society. The ideas and values of the Japanese people influenced perception of the self and religious values of other nations (Hall, Hall 1990). Morals and traditions of the Japanese culture create a strict, unwritten code of essential rules followed by generations of Americans and Europeans as their personal religion which helps to control social life and social order. Many countries adopted traditional Japanese approaches to management including TQM and Quality Circles are a core philosophy of a firm (Hall and Hall, 1990). Introducing Japanese techniques is proving difficult because it cuts across cultural norms. The entrepreneurial spirit of Japanese firms is encouraged as the tendency for individuals to compete against each other frequently gives rise to the development of new ideas. Employee relations is another sphere of Japanese management principles. Yang (1995) explains that: â€Å"Japanese competition has forced the other advanced national economies to investigate seriously and adopt many of the practices which the Japanese have developed† (69). Key benefits include economies of scale in marketing and production, economies of scope, efficiencies in sourcing and transportation, and synergies in other value-adding activities. The response to competitive challenge is another major driver of globalization. In sum, the differences in economic conditions, national values and culture among nations created different opportunities for the development of industries all over the world. Japan has influenced to the competitive pressure by leveraging its competitive position across markets, and by seeking integrated operations. The basic sphere of impact is the international economic and social system, i. e. global manufacture, national economies and the world market. Japan contributes to globalization through investments, access to quality products and technologies, and reciprocal access to foreign markets and managerial development. Unique philosophy and cultural norms of Japanese are also penetrated into other countries shaping behavior of people and perception of the world. From the perspective of business, interest in globalization centers on two major facets: the globalization of markets and the globalization of production and the supply chain. As a member of many international organizations, Japan determines and influences political and economic relations in the Asia-Pacific region and has a great impact on the world order. References 1. Befu, H. , Guichard-Anguis, S. (2001). Globalizing Japan: Ethnography of the Japanese Presence in Asia, Europe, and America. Routledge. 2. Hall, E. T. , Hall, M. R. (1990). Hidden Differences: Doing Business with the Japanese Anchor. 3. Harukiyo, H. , Hook, G. D. (2001). The Political Economy of Japanese Globalization. Routledge.

Poetry and Icarus Essay

The fateful tale of Icarus has been adapted in multiple ways in poetry and in paintings. In â€Å"Icarus†, a poem by Edward Field, a popular mythological character from long ago is transformed into the vastly different reality of a more contemporary world. Irony and figurative language are essential elements of Field’s version of the tale of Icarus, who is immersed into the twentieth century. Irony is extremely evident right when the poem begins to unfold. It starts off by mentioning the setting and the people that live within it. The line that mentions the witnesses of Icarus’s fall running off to a â€Å"gang war† is in my opinion, an ironic reversion of the roles. Field also says Icarus’s police report is â€Å"filed and forgotten†, which is more irony since that is the opposite of what should be done. In the first stanza alone there are immediate differences of the traditional life of Icarus and the new one. Field also uses diction to portray to the reader that the poem is a more contemporary version of the myth of Icarus. The words â€Å"suit†, â€Å"gang war†, â€Å"committees, and â€Å"trains† show that the writer is trying to tell you that the poem is in a more modern time. Field doesn’t even attempt to make the poem sound monumental like older poems and stories usually do. Edward Field adapts the Icarus myth so well that it still has the same lure as the actual Greek myth. His diction and irony definitely clarify the newer, more modern setting. He reflects an effective change of Icarus’s setting in a unique way that I haven’t seen done before, until now, that is.